Western Classical Music
Montage of some great classical music composers. From left to right:
Top row: Antonio Vivaldi, Johann Sebastian Bach, George Frideric Handel, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven;
Second row: Gioachino Rossini, Felix Mendelssohn, Frédéric Chopin, Richard Wagner, Giuseppe Verdi;
Third row: Johann Strauss II, Johannes Brahms, Georges Bizet,Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Antonín Dvořák;
Bottom row: Edvard Grieg, Edward Elgar, Sergei Rachmaninoff,George Gershwin, Aram Khachaturian
The term Classical is utilized to cover an expansive range of art music that originated in Europe around 500 AD, including the Medieval Classical Music, Renaissance Music, Baroque Music, Classical Period, Romanticism, and Modern Classical periods. Significant composers in this genre include Pérotin, Machaut, Palestrina, Händel, Bach, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Brahms, Debussy, Schönberg, Stravinsky, Cage, and Reich.
Albeit there are notable exceptions, particularly in the early and later periods, Western Classical music can be distinguished by its system and harmonic language, dodecaphonic tuning system, fixed notational system, standard musical forms, and instrumentation. When contrasted broadly to distinct traditions of music, Western Classical Music has a tendency to place more emphasis on harmony and less on rhythm, and depends more on fixed performance as opposed to improvisation.
The genre has changed profoundly over time, and two pieces picked from distinctive periods may sound immeasurably different; however, the gradual development, its evolutionary lineage, and its history lends cohesiveness to the numerous individual styles and movements within the genre.
Styles
There are a lot of genres and styles that make up the world of Western Classical Music (WCM), but there are a select few that are very well known. Note that as music evolved, composers increasingly began to exercise their freedom and creativity, to the extent that at times they even broke away from these styles.
orchestral vs. chamber music
WCM works can be comprehensively differentiated as either being ‘Orchestral’ or as ‘Chamber Music’. Orchestral works are those performed by a full orchestra, comprising dozens of different instruments being played by dozens of performers. Several performers may play the same instrument. Chamber Music comprises of works performed by a rather small group of performers, each one playing a different instrument. The reason for this terminology is historical — the occasion and purpose behind the two genres was different. Orchestral works were performed for the public; chamber music was intended to be performed as an accompaniment inside homes of royal families who financed and supported music composers. For obvious reasons, Chamber Music is additionally referred to as Ensemble.
Additional Genres may be characterized as Instrumental for solo instruments, Choral for group of singers (choir). What follows below is a generic description of several ‘styles’ that lie within these genres.
concerto
The Solo Concerto is an orchestral work composed in three movements, performed by the full orchestra and a solo instrument. Typically, concertos are written for the piano, violin, cello or the flute. The interplay between the solo instrument and the orchestra is the defining element of the Concerto — this is the closest in WCM to the ‘jugalbandi’ in Indian Classical. The Concerto has additionally survived centuries of musical evolution and remains popular to this day, with numerous accomplished solo instrumentalists showcasing their virtuoso skills while performing in this genre. Conventional concertos have the first movement in Sonata Form; the second may be Sonata or free-flowing, while the finale is typically a Rondo or simply a ‘Theme with Variations’.
symphony
A Symphony is an orchestral work, typically composed in four or five movements. Like the concerto, symphonies have been a mainstay of WCM for quite a while and have been extremely popular. A typical symphony conforms to the following structure:
1. Opening movement is fast-paced, with a solid thematic character. This movement is usually in the Sonata Form.
2. Second movement is slow, sometimes melancholy or solemn. This movement may utilize the Sonata, Rondo, or a simple ‘Theme with Variations’ structure.
3. Third movement is a Minuet or Scherzo, moderately paced. A minuet is intended to accompany dance, the Scherzo replaced it in later eras, with much swifter tempo. Both follow the ‘Ternary Form’ (ABA… ).
4. The Fourth movement is the Finale, which is again a quick-paced movement in Sonata or Rondo form or structure.
Many symphonies reverse the second and third movements. Beethoven advanced the form further by even introducing the choir in the well-known ‘Ode to Joy’ finale of his ninth symphony. When you hear a symphony, you can sense the incredible power of the full orchestra. If any person is not moved by this spectacular music, there is a soul missing.
sonata
A ‘Sonata’ is a work for one or two instruments, composed in three or four movements, very similar in form to the Symphony (discussed previously). You could say that a Sonata is a Chamber Music version of the Orchestral Symphony. Most sonatas were written for the piano (solo) or the Violin (frequently accompanied by the piano).
opera
The Opera is full-fledged theater — a drama performed by actors who're also singers, accompanied by a full orchestra, involving a storyline, costumes, sets, etc. It is a standout amongst the most endearing and popular genres of WCM with a rich history of evolution.
‘Opera’ signifies ‘work’ in Italian (opus = work), possibly referring to the labor involved for the performers in singing, acting, and dancing. The content of the drama is the ‘libretto’, while the melodies and songs are the ‘aria’. The instrumental work performed by the orchestra before the curtains open is the ‘Overture’.
Singing in an Opera is a difficult ability, since the human voices have to be heard without electronic amplification over and above the full blast of the orchestra. Different male and female voices are classified into bass/tenor/contralto/soprano/etc. according to their voice types. The music of an opera is sufficiently a show-stopper and work of art in itself, which can be appreciated and enjoyed without the theater.
trios, quartets, quintets
As their name suggests, these are works for a set of three, four, or five instruments. These works comprise a vast majority of Chamber Music, and are a delight in themselves. Chamber Music is more nuanced and intimate than Orchestral Music, and needs a finer ear and appreciation. They may appear to be deceptively simple initially, as they don't overwhelm the ear like Orchestral works, but actually, they're complex and serious, requiring greater ‘mind listening’. The most popular among these is the String Quartet, which is performed with two violins, one viola, and one cello.
There are distinct works in Chamber Music that are performed by trios, quartets, and so on yet are termed differently, like ‘Divertimento’, ‘Serenade’, or ‘Nachtmusik’. For example, Mozart's Divertimento in D Major, KV 136 is a mini-symphony for the string quartet.
rhapsody
A ‘Rhapsody’ is a single movement work that is free-flowing and doesn't follow any form or structure. It typically has contrasting shades of mood and tonality.
From Tom & Jerry cartoons to music albums, from advertisements to movies, this work has had an immense impact on music in all spheres of life.
History
Why should you care about periods and eras in Classical Music? Because they’re invaluable if you wish to appreciate a Classical Music work in perspective historically. On a broad level, Classical Music has evolved through the following eras:
⦁ Medieval (1150 — 1400)
⦁ Renaissance (1400 — 1600)
⦁ Baroque (1600 — 1750)
⦁ Classical (1750 — 1830)
⦁ Early Romantic (1830 — 1860)
⦁ Late Romantic (1890 — 1920)
⦁ Post ‘Great War’ Years (1920 — Present)
Yes, as simple as that. But these seven periods cover over eight centuries of music. Eras in music parallel man’s evolution in many ways. Societal norms are reflected in each milestone. Let’s look at each era in some detail.
Medieval (c.1150-c.1400)
This is the first period where we can start to be genuinely sure as to how a lot of the music which has survived actually sounded. The earliest written secular music dates from the twelfth century troubadours (in the form of virelais, estampies, numbers, etc.), however most documented original copies exude from places of learning typically connected with the church, and therefore inevitably have a religious basis.
Gregorian chant and plainsong which are monodic (i.e. composed as one musical line) gradually developed amid the eleventh to thirteenth centuries into organum (i.e. two or three lines moving simultaneously however independently, therefore almost inadvertently representing the beginnings of harmony). Organum was, on the other hand, at first rather stifled by rigid rules governing melody and rhythm, which led eventually to the so-called Ars Nova period of the fourteenth century, principally represented by the composers de Vitry, Machaut, and Landini.
Renaissance (c.1400-c.1600)
The fifteenth century vastly increased freedoms, most particularly regarding what is really seen as "harmony" and "polyphony" (the simultaneous movement of two or three interrelated parts). Composers (in spite of the fact that they were barely perceived as such) were still pretty much totally dedicated to choral writing, and the few instrumental compositions which have survived frequently make the impression (in many cases entirely accurately) of being vocal works in disguise, but minus the words.
There is obvious new delight in textural variety and contrast, so that, for instance, a specific segment of text may be enhanced by a vocal part dropping out momentarily, only to return again at a special moment of emphasis. The four most influential composers of the fifteenth century were Dunstable, Ockeghem, Despres and Dufay.
The second half of the sixteenth century saw the beginnings of the tradition which numerous music lovers readily associate with the typical feel of 'classical' music. Gradually, composers moved away from the modal system of harmony which had predominated for over 300 years (and still sounds to some degree archaic to some modern ears), towards the organisation of their work into major and minor scales, subsequently giving the strong sensation of each piece having an unmistakable tonal centre or 'key'.
This was also something of a golden period for choral composition as a seemingly endless flow of a cappella (unaccompanied) masses, motets, anthems, psalms and madrigals flowed from the pens of the masters of the age. Moreover, instrumental music came into its own for the first time, especially keyboard music in the form of fantasias, variations, and dance movements (galliards, pavanes, etc.). Composers of particular note include Dowland, Tallis, Byrd, Gibbons, Frescobaldi, Palestrina, Victoria, Lassus, Alonso Lobo, Duarte Lobo, Cardoso and Gesualdo.
Baroque (c.1600-c.1750)
During the Baroque period, the foundations were laid for the following 300 or so years of musical expression: the idea of the modern orchestra was born, along with opera (including the overture, prelude, aria, recitative and chorus), the concerto, sonata, and modern cantata. The rather soft-grained viol string family of the Renaissance was gradually replaced by the bolder violin, viola and cello, the harpsichord was invented, and important advances were made in all instrumental groups.
Until about 1700, the old modes still exerted themselves from time to time by coloring certain melodic lines or chord progressions, but from the beginning of the 18th century the modern harmonic system based upon the major and minor scales was effectively pan-European. Choral music no longer dominated, and as composers turned more and more to writing idiomatic instrumental works for ensembles of increasing color and variety, so 'classical' music (as opposed to 'popular') gradually began to work its way into the very fabric of society, being played outdoors at dinner parties or special functions (e.g. Handel's Water Music), or as a spectacle in the form of opera. On a purely domestic level, every wealthy lady would have a spinet to play, and at meal-times the large and rich houses would employ musicians to play what was popularly called Tafelmusik in Germany, of which Telemann was perhaps the most famous composer.
Of the many 17th century composers who paved the way for this popular explosion of 'classical' music, the following were outstanding: Monteverdi, Corelli, Alessandro Scarlatti, Schutz, Buxtehude, Purcell and Lully. Yet, the most popular composers of the period, indeed those who seem to define by their very names the sound of Baroque music at its most colorful and sophisticated are Johann Sebastian Bach, Handel, Telemann, Rameau, François Couperin, Domenico Scarlatti, and Vivaldi, all of them at their creative peak during the first half of the 18th century.
Classical (c.1750-c.1830)
The Baroque era witnessed the creation of a number of musical genres which would maintain a hold on composition for years to come, yet it was the Classical period which saw the introduction of a form which has dominated instrumental composition to the present day: sonata form. With it came the development of the modern concerto, symphony, sonata, trio and quartet to a new peak of structural and expressive refinement. If Baroque music is notable for its textural intricacy, then the Classical period is characterised by a near-obsession with structural clarity.
The seeds of the Classical age were sown by a number of composers whose names are now largely forgotten such as Schobert and Honnauer (both Germans largely active in Paris), as well as more historically respected names, including Gluck, Boccherini and at least three of Johann Sebastian Bach's sons: Carl Phillip Emmanuel, Wilhelm Friedmann and Johann Christian (the so-called 'London' Bach). They were representative of a period which is variously described as rococo or galante, the former implying a gradual move away from the artifice of the High Baroque, the latter an entirely novel style based on symmetry and sensibility, which came to dominate the music of the latter half of the 18th century through two composers of extraordinary significance: Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.
At a time when Mozart’s father (a huge influence in his life) was questioning his son’s career path, in 1785, Haydn said to Mozart’s father Leopold:
“Before God and as an honest man I tell you that your son is the greatest composer known to me either in person or by name; he has taste, and, furthermore, the most profound knowledge of composition.”
Haydn was a father figure to Mozart and their friendship is very well documented. He is considered, justifiably, to be the father of the symphony and the string quartet.
Early Romantic (c.1830 - c.1860)
As the Classical period reached its zenith, it was becoming increasing clear (especially with the late works of Beethoven and Schubert) that the amount and intensity of expression composers were seeking to achieve was beginning to go beyond that which a Classically sized/designed orchestra/piano could possibly encompass. The next period in musical history therefore found composers attempting to balance the expressive and the formal in music with a variety of approaches which would have left composers of any previous age utterly bewildered. As the musical map opened up, with nationalist schools beginning to emerge, it was the search for originality and individuality of expression which began here that was to become such an over-riding obsession in the present century.
The Romantic era was the golden age of the virtuoso, where the most fiendishly difficult music would be performed with nonchalant ease, and the most innocuous theme in a composition would be developed at great length for the enjoyment of the adoring audience. The emotional range of music during this period was considerably widened, as was its harmonic vocabulary and the range and number of instruments which might be called upon to play it. Music often had a 'programme' or story-line attached to it, sometimes of a tragic or despairing nature, occasionally representing such natural phenomena as rivers or galloping horses. The next hundred years would find composers either embracing whole-heartedly the ideals of Romanticism, or in some way reacting against them.
Of the early Romantic composers, two Nationalists deserve special mention, the Russian Glinka (of Russlan and Ludmilla fame) and the Bohemian Smetana (composer of the popular symphonic poem Vltava or 'The Moldau'). However, the six leading composers of the age were undoubtedly Berlioz, Chopin, Mendelssohn, Schumann, Liszt and Verdi.
Late Romantic (c.1860 - c.1920)
With the honorable exceptions of Brahms and Bruckner, composers of this period shared a general tendency towards allowing their natural inspiration free rein, often pacing their compositions more in terms of their emotional content and dramatic continuity rather than organic structural growth. This was an era highlighted by the extraordinarily rapid appearance of the national schools, and the operatic supremacy of Verdi and Wagner. The eventual end of Romanticism came with the fragmentation of this basic style, composers joining 'schools' of composition, each with a style that was in vogue for a short period of time.
Post 'Great War' Years (c.1920 - Present)
The period since the Great War is undoubtedly the most bewildering of all, as composers have pulled in various apparently contradictory and opposing directions. Typical of the dilemma during the inter-war years, for example, were the Austrians, Webern and Lehar, the former was experimenting with the highly compressed and advanced form known as 'serial structure', while simultaneously Lehar was still indulging in an operetta style which would not have seemed out of place over half a century beforehand.
So diverse are the styles adopted throughout the greater part of the present century that only by experimentation can listeners discover for themselves whether certain composers are to their particular taste or not. There are, however, compositions that serve as an excellent introduction and will certainly repay investigation.
Key Musical Concepts
Styles of Music
The following are the many different styles of Western Classical Music:
⦁ Avant-Garde
⦁ Baroque
⦁ Chamber Music
⦁ Chant
⦁ Choral
⦁ Classical Crossover
⦁ Early Music
⦁ High Classical
⦁ Impressionist
⦁ Medieval
⦁ Minimalism
⦁ Modern Composition
⦁ Opera
⦁ Orchestral
⦁ Renaissance
⦁ Romantic
⦁ Wedding Music
Scales
In Western Classical Music (WCM), you will often find works titled as “Symphony in G Minor”, “Concerto in A Major”, etc. What does that mean?
The ‘G Minor’ and ‘A Major’ refer to ‘scales’ or the sequence of notes starting from the note C or A. This sequence is different between major and minor scales.
You do not need to understand or be able to identify keys in order to appreciate WCM. So feel very comfortable ignoring these terms completely.
For beginners & amateurs (like myself), what helps is understanding how major and minor affect the overall mood of the composition. Compositions in the major scale sound confident, pleasant, and happy. The minor scale, on the other hand, makes music sound melancholy, introspective, and dark.
Sometimes, this may happen in a sequence:
In major, the 3rd note is 2-whole-steps above the 1st.
In minor, the 3rd note is 1.5-steps above the 1st.
Does this mean that works in the major scale don’t use the keys in the minor scale? No. In WCM, we are not constrained to using only ‘allowed’ keys, like in Indian Classical Music ‘raagas’. A composition in the major scale may use all keys, but it will ‘come to rest’ or ‘resolve’, on the key that is in the major scale (and vice-versa for minor).
Why do major-minor scales create such contrasting moods? We really don’t know. Research suggests that this phenomenon may not be restricted to music, but we may also be using it in our speech!
Another tantalizing aspect is how frequent was the use of Major vs. Minor in the course of history. Statistics show that earlier eras were prolific in composing in the major scale, while latter works have focused more on the minor scale.
Dance
Western Classical Music correlates to the dance style of classical ballet. Classical ballet is a traditional, formal style of ballet that adheres to classical ballet technique. It is known for its aesthetics and rigorous technique (such as pointe work, turnout of the legs, and high extensions), its flowing, precise movements, and its ethereal qualities.
Albeit there are notable exceptions, particularly in the early and later periods, Western Classical music can be distinguished by its system and harmonic language, dodecaphonic tuning system, fixed notational system, standard musical forms, and instrumentation. When contrasted broadly to distinct traditions of music, Western Classical Music has a tendency to place more emphasis on harmony and less on rhythm, and depends more on fixed performance as opposed to improvisation.
The genre has changed profoundly over time, and two pieces picked from distinctive periods may sound immeasurably different; however, the gradual development, its evolutionary lineage, and its history lends cohesiveness to the numerous individual styles and movements within the genre.
Styles
There are a lot of genres and styles that make up the world of Western Classical Music (WCM), but there are a select few that are very well known. Note that as music evolved, composers increasingly began to exercise their freedom and creativity, to the extent that at times they even broke away from these styles.
orchestral vs. chamber music
WCM works can be comprehensively differentiated as either being ‘Orchestral’ or as ‘Chamber Music’. Orchestral works are those performed by a full orchestra, comprising dozens of different instruments being played by dozens of performers. Several performers may play the same instrument. Chamber Music comprises of works performed by a rather small group of performers, each one playing a different instrument. The reason for this terminology is historical — the occasion and purpose behind the two genres was different. Orchestral works were performed for the public; chamber music was intended to be performed as an accompaniment inside homes of royal families who financed and supported music composers. For obvious reasons, Chamber Music is additionally referred to as Ensemble.
Additional Genres may be characterized as Instrumental for solo instruments, Choral for group of singers (choir). What follows below is a generic description of several ‘styles’ that lie within these genres.
concerto
The Solo Concerto is an orchestral work composed in three movements, performed by the full orchestra and a solo instrument. Typically, concertos are written for the piano, violin, cello or the flute. The interplay between the solo instrument and the orchestra is the defining element of the Concerto — this is the closest in WCM to the ‘jugalbandi’ in Indian Classical. The Concerto has additionally survived centuries of musical evolution and remains popular to this day, with numerous accomplished solo instrumentalists showcasing their virtuoso skills while performing in this genre. Conventional concertos have the first movement in Sonata Form; the second may be Sonata or free-flowing, while the finale is typically a Rondo or simply a ‘Theme with Variations’.
symphony
A Symphony is an orchestral work, typically composed in four or five movements. Like the concerto, symphonies have been a mainstay of WCM for quite a while and have been extremely popular. A typical symphony conforms to the following structure:
1. Opening movement is fast-paced, with a solid thematic character. This movement is usually in the Sonata Form.
2. Second movement is slow, sometimes melancholy or solemn. This movement may utilize the Sonata, Rondo, or a simple ‘Theme with Variations’ structure.
3. Third movement is a Minuet or Scherzo, moderately paced. A minuet is intended to accompany dance, the Scherzo replaced it in later eras, with much swifter tempo. Both follow the ‘Ternary Form’ (ABA… ).
4. The Fourth movement is the Finale, which is again a quick-paced movement in Sonata or Rondo form or structure.
Many symphonies reverse the second and third movements. Beethoven advanced the form further by even introducing the choir in the well-known ‘Ode to Joy’ finale of his ninth symphony. When you hear a symphony, you can sense the incredible power of the full orchestra. If any person is not moved by this spectacular music, there is a soul missing.
sonata
A ‘Sonata’ is a work for one or two instruments, composed in three or four movements, very similar in form to the Symphony (discussed previously). You could say that a Sonata is a Chamber Music version of the Orchestral Symphony. Most sonatas were written for the piano (solo) or the Violin (frequently accompanied by the piano).
opera
The Opera is full-fledged theater — a drama performed by actors who're also singers, accompanied by a full orchestra, involving a storyline, costumes, sets, etc. It is a standout amongst the most endearing and popular genres of WCM with a rich history of evolution.
‘Opera’ signifies ‘work’ in Italian (opus = work), possibly referring to the labor involved for the performers in singing, acting, and dancing. The content of the drama is the ‘libretto’, while the melodies and songs are the ‘aria’. The instrumental work performed by the orchestra before the curtains open is the ‘Overture’.
Singing in an Opera is a difficult ability, since the human voices have to be heard without electronic amplification over and above the full blast of the orchestra. Different male and female voices are classified into bass/tenor/contralto/soprano/etc. according to their voice types. The music of an opera is sufficiently a show-stopper and work of art in itself, which can be appreciated and enjoyed without the theater.
trios, quartets, quintets
As their name suggests, these are works for a set of three, four, or five instruments. These works comprise a vast majority of Chamber Music, and are a delight in themselves. Chamber Music is more nuanced and intimate than Orchestral Music, and needs a finer ear and appreciation. They may appear to be deceptively simple initially, as they don't overwhelm the ear like Orchestral works, but actually, they're complex and serious, requiring greater ‘mind listening’. The most popular among these is the String Quartet, which is performed with two violins, one viola, and one cello.
There are distinct works in Chamber Music that are performed by trios, quartets, and so on yet are termed differently, like ‘Divertimento’, ‘Serenade’, or ‘Nachtmusik’. For example, Mozart's Divertimento in D Major, KV 136 is a mini-symphony for the string quartet.
rhapsody
A ‘Rhapsody’ is a single movement work that is free-flowing and doesn't follow any form or structure. It typically has contrasting shades of mood and tonality.
From Tom & Jerry cartoons to music albums, from advertisements to movies, this work has had an immense impact on music in all spheres of life.
History
Why should you care about periods and eras in Classical Music? Because they’re invaluable if you wish to appreciate a Classical Music work in perspective historically. On a broad level, Classical Music has evolved through the following eras:
⦁ Medieval (1150 — 1400)
⦁ Renaissance (1400 — 1600)
⦁ Baroque (1600 — 1750)
⦁ Classical (1750 — 1830)
⦁ Early Romantic (1830 — 1860)
⦁ Late Romantic (1890 — 1920)
⦁ Post ‘Great War’ Years (1920 — Present)
Yes, as simple as that. But these seven periods cover over eight centuries of music. Eras in music parallel man’s evolution in many ways. Societal norms are reflected in each milestone. Let’s look at each era in some detail.
Medieval (c.1150-c.1400)
This is the first period where we can start to be genuinely sure as to how a lot of the music which has survived actually sounded. The earliest written secular music dates from the twelfth century troubadours (in the form of virelais, estampies, numbers, etc.), however most documented original copies exude from places of learning typically connected with the church, and therefore inevitably have a religious basis.
Gregorian chant and plainsong which are monodic (i.e. composed as one musical line) gradually developed amid the eleventh to thirteenth centuries into organum (i.e. two or three lines moving simultaneously however independently, therefore almost inadvertently representing the beginnings of harmony). Organum was, on the other hand, at first rather stifled by rigid rules governing melody and rhythm, which led eventually to the so-called Ars Nova period of the fourteenth century, principally represented by the composers de Vitry, Machaut, and Landini.
Renaissance (c.1400-c.1600)
The fifteenth century vastly increased freedoms, most particularly regarding what is really seen as "harmony" and "polyphony" (the simultaneous movement of two or three interrelated parts). Composers (in spite of the fact that they were barely perceived as such) were still pretty much totally dedicated to choral writing, and the few instrumental compositions which have survived frequently make the impression (in many cases entirely accurately) of being vocal works in disguise, but minus the words.
There is obvious new delight in textural variety and contrast, so that, for instance, a specific segment of text may be enhanced by a vocal part dropping out momentarily, only to return again at a special moment of emphasis. The four most influential composers of the fifteenth century were Dunstable, Ockeghem, Despres and Dufay.
The second half of the sixteenth century saw the beginnings of the tradition which numerous music lovers readily associate with the typical feel of 'classical' music. Gradually, composers moved away from the modal system of harmony which had predominated for over 300 years (and still sounds to some degree archaic to some modern ears), towards the organisation of their work into major and minor scales, subsequently giving the strong sensation of each piece having an unmistakable tonal centre or 'key'.
This was also something of a golden period for choral composition as a seemingly endless flow of a cappella (unaccompanied) masses, motets, anthems, psalms and madrigals flowed from the pens of the masters of the age. Moreover, instrumental music came into its own for the first time, especially keyboard music in the form of fantasias, variations, and dance movements (galliards, pavanes, etc.). Composers of particular note include Dowland, Tallis, Byrd, Gibbons, Frescobaldi, Palestrina, Victoria, Lassus, Alonso Lobo, Duarte Lobo, Cardoso and Gesualdo.
Baroque (c.1600-c.1750)
During the Baroque period, the foundations were laid for the following 300 or so years of musical expression: the idea of the modern orchestra was born, along with opera (including the overture, prelude, aria, recitative and chorus), the concerto, sonata, and modern cantata. The rather soft-grained viol string family of the Renaissance was gradually replaced by the bolder violin, viola and cello, the harpsichord was invented, and important advances were made in all instrumental groups.
Until about 1700, the old modes still exerted themselves from time to time by coloring certain melodic lines or chord progressions, but from the beginning of the 18th century the modern harmonic system based upon the major and minor scales was effectively pan-European. Choral music no longer dominated, and as composers turned more and more to writing idiomatic instrumental works for ensembles of increasing color and variety, so 'classical' music (as opposed to 'popular') gradually began to work its way into the very fabric of society, being played outdoors at dinner parties or special functions (e.g. Handel's Water Music), or as a spectacle in the form of opera. On a purely domestic level, every wealthy lady would have a spinet to play, and at meal-times the large and rich houses would employ musicians to play what was popularly called Tafelmusik in Germany, of which Telemann was perhaps the most famous composer.
Of the many 17th century composers who paved the way for this popular explosion of 'classical' music, the following were outstanding: Monteverdi, Corelli, Alessandro Scarlatti, Schutz, Buxtehude, Purcell and Lully. Yet, the most popular composers of the period, indeed those who seem to define by their very names the sound of Baroque music at its most colorful and sophisticated are Johann Sebastian Bach, Handel, Telemann, Rameau, François Couperin, Domenico Scarlatti, and Vivaldi, all of them at their creative peak during the first half of the 18th century.
Classical (c.1750-c.1830)
The Baroque era witnessed the creation of a number of musical genres which would maintain a hold on composition for years to come, yet it was the Classical period which saw the introduction of a form which has dominated instrumental composition to the present day: sonata form. With it came the development of the modern concerto, symphony, sonata, trio and quartet to a new peak of structural and expressive refinement. If Baroque music is notable for its textural intricacy, then the Classical period is characterised by a near-obsession with structural clarity.
The seeds of the Classical age were sown by a number of composers whose names are now largely forgotten such as Schobert and Honnauer (both Germans largely active in Paris), as well as more historically respected names, including Gluck, Boccherini and at least three of Johann Sebastian Bach's sons: Carl Phillip Emmanuel, Wilhelm Friedmann and Johann Christian (the so-called 'London' Bach). They were representative of a period which is variously described as rococo or galante, the former implying a gradual move away from the artifice of the High Baroque, the latter an entirely novel style based on symmetry and sensibility, which came to dominate the music of the latter half of the 18th century through two composers of extraordinary significance: Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.
At a time when Mozart’s father (a huge influence in his life) was questioning his son’s career path, in 1785, Haydn said to Mozart’s father Leopold:
“Before God and as an honest man I tell you that your son is the greatest composer known to me either in person or by name; he has taste, and, furthermore, the most profound knowledge of composition.”
Haydn was a father figure to Mozart and their friendship is very well documented. He is considered, justifiably, to be the father of the symphony and the string quartet.
Early Romantic (c.1830 - c.1860)
As the Classical period reached its zenith, it was becoming increasing clear (especially with the late works of Beethoven and Schubert) that the amount and intensity of expression composers were seeking to achieve was beginning to go beyond that which a Classically sized/designed orchestra/piano could possibly encompass. The next period in musical history therefore found composers attempting to balance the expressive and the formal in music with a variety of approaches which would have left composers of any previous age utterly bewildered. As the musical map opened up, with nationalist schools beginning to emerge, it was the search for originality and individuality of expression which began here that was to become such an over-riding obsession in the present century.
The Romantic era was the golden age of the virtuoso, where the most fiendishly difficult music would be performed with nonchalant ease, and the most innocuous theme in a composition would be developed at great length for the enjoyment of the adoring audience. The emotional range of music during this period was considerably widened, as was its harmonic vocabulary and the range and number of instruments which might be called upon to play it. Music often had a 'programme' or story-line attached to it, sometimes of a tragic or despairing nature, occasionally representing such natural phenomena as rivers or galloping horses. The next hundred years would find composers either embracing whole-heartedly the ideals of Romanticism, or in some way reacting against them.
Of the early Romantic composers, two Nationalists deserve special mention, the Russian Glinka (of Russlan and Ludmilla fame) and the Bohemian Smetana (composer of the popular symphonic poem Vltava or 'The Moldau'). However, the six leading composers of the age were undoubtedly Berlioz, Chopin, Mendelssohn, Schumann, Liszt and Verdi.
Late Romantic (c.1860 - c.1920)
With the honorable exceptions of Brahms and Bruckner, composers of this period shared a general tendency towards allowing their natural inspiration free rein, often pacing their compositions more in terms of their emotional content and dramatic continuity rather than organic structural growth. This was an era highlighted by the extraordinarily rapid appearance of the national schools, and the operatic supremacy of Verdi and Wagner. The eventual end of Romanticism came with the fragmentation of this basic style, composers joining 'schools' of composition, each with a style that was in vogue for a short period of time.
Post 'Great War' Years (c.1920 - Present)
The period since the Great War is undoubtedly the most bewildering of all, as composers have pulled in various apparently contradictory and opposing directions. Typical of the dilemma during the inter-war years, for example, were the Austrians, Webern and Lehar, the former was experimenting with the highly compressed and advanced form known as 'serial structure', while simultaneously Lehar was still indulging in an operetta style which would not have seemed out of place over half a century beforehand.
So diverse are the styles adopted throughout the greater part of the present century that only by experimentation can listeners discover for themselves whether certain composers are to their particular taste or not. There are, however, compositions that serve as an excellent introduction and will certainly repay investigation.
Key Musical Concepts
Styles of Music
The following are the many different styles of Western Classical Music:
⦁ Avant-Garde
⦁ Baroque
⦁ Chamber Music
⦁ Chant
⦁ Choral
⦁ Classical Crossover
⦁ Early Music
⦁ High Classical
⦁ Impressionist
⦁ Medieval
⦁ Minimalism
⦁ Modern Composition
⦁ Opera
⦁ Orchestral
⦁ Renaissance
⦁ Romantic
⦁ Wedding Music
Scales
In Western Classical Music (WCM), you will often find works titled as “Symphony in G Minor”, “Concerto in A Major”, etc. What does that mean?
The ‘G Minor’ and ‘A Major’ refer to ‘scales’ or the sequence of notes starting from the note C or A. This sequence is different between major and minor scales.
You do not need to understand or be able to identify keys in order to appreciate WCM. So feel very comfortable ignoring these terms completely.
For beginners & amateurs (like myself), what helps is understanding how major and minor affect the overall mood of the composition. Compositions in the major scale sound confident, pleasant, and happy. The minor scale, on the other hand, makes music sound melancholy, introspective, and dark.
Sometimes, this may happen in a sequence:
In major, the 3rd note is 2-whole-steps above the 1st.
In minor, the 3rd note is 1.5-steps above the 1st.
Does this mean that works in the major scale don’t use the keys in the minor scale? No. In WCM, we are not constrained to using only ‘allowed’ keys, like in Indian Classical Music ‘raagas’. A composition in the major scale may use all keys, but it will ‘come to rest’ or ‘resolve’, on the key that is in the major scale (and vice-versa for minor).
Why do major-minor scales create such contrasting moods? We really don’t know. Research suggests that this phenomenon may not be restricted to music, but we may also be using it in our speech!
Another tantalizing aspect is how frequent was the use of Major vs. Minor in the course of history. Statistics show that earlier eras were prolific in composing in the major scale, while latter works have focused more on the minor scale.
Dance
Western Classical Music correlates to the dance style of classical ballet. Classical ballet is a traditional, formal style of ballet that adheres to classical ballet technique. It is known for its aesthetics and rigorous technique (such as pointe work, turnout of the legs, and high extensions), its flowing, precise movements, and its ethereal qualities.